The Aryavarth Express
Aryavarth(Bengaluru): The Cholas’ ascent to maritime supremacy was not a chance occurrence but rather the result of a deliberate and strategic effort by the empire’s rulers. The Chola kings recognized the immense potential of controlling the seas and invested heavily in the development of a robust naval force. The ancient Tamil text “Pattinappalai,” composed during the Sangam period (3rd century BCE to 3rd century CE), alludes to the Cholas’ early maritime ambitions, describing the kingdom as a land “where the ships rode at anchor bent to the point of breaking, laden as they were with wealth, big trunked elephants, and gems of nine varieties in heaps.”
As the Cholas’ power grew, so did their naval capabilities. The empire’s shipyards hummed with activity, producing a wide array of vessels, from nimble coastal boats to colossal warships known as Thirisadai, capable of carrying up to 1,000 soldiers. The 11th-century Chola inscriptions at Kanyakumari mention the construction of a fleet of ships named “Gangai Kandalur-Salai,” showcasing the empire’s commitment to naval expansion.
The Cholas’ naval prowess was not merely a matter of brute force, but also a testament to their technological ingenuity. The empire’s shipwrights pioneered the use of a technique called “stitched-plank construction,” in which wooden planks were sewn together with coir rope, resulting in ships that were both flexible and resilient. This innovative method allowed the Cholas to construct vessels of exceptional size and strength, surpassing the shipbuilding capabilities of their contemporaries, such as the Arabs and the Chinese.
The Cholas also excelled in the art of navigation, employing a sophisticated system called “kamal” to chart their course across the vast expanses of the ocean. By measuring the altitude of stars using a wooden board with a central hole, Chola navigators could determine their position with remarkable accuracy, enabling them to undertake long-distance voyages with confidence.
The Chola navy was a highly organized and well-structured force, divided into several specialized divisions, each with its own unique capabilities and responsibilities. The “Kadal Padai,” or the Sea Force, was the empire’s primary naval arm, tasked with protecting the Cholas’ maritime interests and conducting offensive operations against enemy fleets. The “Nedi Padai,” or the Coastal Force, was responsible for patrolling the empire’s extensive coastline and guarding against piracy and smuggling.
One of the most remarkable features of the Chola navy was its use of a sophisticated signaling system known as “Kodi-Sornam,” which allowed ships to communicate with each other over vast distances using flags and pennants. This early form of naval semaphore enabled the Chola fleet to coordinate its movements with precision and respond swiftly to changing circumstances on the high seas.
The Cholas also pioneered the use of a unique type of ship known as the “Kappal,” a sturdy, ocean-going vessel that was specifically designed for long-distance trade and naval warfare. These ships were equipped with multiple decks, advanced rigging systems, and spacious cargo holds, allowing them to carry large quantities of goods and troops across the open ocean.
In addition to their technological and organizational innovations, the Cholas also placed a strong emphasis on naval training and discipline. The empire maintained a network of naval academies and training centers, where young recruits were taught the arts of seamanship, navigation, and naval warfare. This rigorous training regimen ensured that the Chola navy was always staffed with highly skilled and professional crews, capable of undertaking the most challenging missions.
With their naval might firmly established, the Cholas embarked on a series of expansionist campaigns that would see their empire grow to encompass a significant portion of the Indian Ocean. Under the rule of the illustrious king Rajaraja Chola I (985-1014 CE), the empire’s territories expanded to include Sri Lanka, the Maldives, and the Malabar Coast.
However, it was during the reign of Rajaraja’s son, Rajendra Chola I (1014-1044 CE), that the Cholas’ maritime ambitions reached their zenith. In a daring campaign, Rajendra Chola I launched an invasion of the Srivijaya Empire, a powerful kingdom that controlled the lucrative spice trade in Southeast Asia. The Chola forces, sailing across the Bay of Bengal in a fleet of 100 warships, successfully captured the Srivijayan capital of Palembang in 1025 CE, a victory that would go down in history as one of the greatest naval feats of the medieval world.
The 13th-century Persian chronicle “Tabaqat-i Nasiri” by Minhaj-i Siraj Juzjani marvels at the Cholas’ naval capabilities, stating, “The ruler of the Cholas possesses an innumerable army, including a cavalry of 60,000 and a fleet so vast that when drawn up in battle array, the eyes cannot see one end of it from the other.”
The Cholas’ maritime conquests were not merely an end in themselves, but rather a means to secure control over the lucrative trade routes that crisscrossed the Indian Ocean. With their far-reaching naval presence, the Cholas established a commercial network that was unrivaled in its scope and diversity.
From the bustling port cities of Nagapattinam and Kayalpattinam, Chola merchants set sail for distant shores, their ships laden with precious cargo such as spices, textiles, precious stones, and exotic animals. The 14th-century Moroccan traveler Ibn Battuta, who visited the Chola kingdom during his journeys, marveled at the wealth and prosperity of the empire’s markets, writing, “In the city of Nagapattinam, there are numerous merchants, and its bazaars are filled with a wide variety of goods, including precious stones, pearls, and textiles of all kinds.”
The Cholas’ trade relations extended far beyond the confines of the Indian subcontinent. Chinese records from the Song Dynasty (960-1279 CE) make frequent mention of Chola merchants, who were known as “Zhu-nian” or “Shu-lien” in Chinese sources. The 12th-century text “Ling-wai-dai-da” by Zhou Qufei describes the Chola kingdom as a land of “pure gold and precious stones,” where “the people are wealthy and prosperous, and the houses are filled with an abundance of goods.”
In the West, the Cholas’ commercial reach extended to the Arabian Peninsula and the East African coast. The 10th-century Arab geographer Al-Masudi writes of the Cholas’ naval expeditions to the land of Zabaj (Southeast Asia) and the Abyssinian coast (modern-day Ethiopia and Eritrea), testifying to the empire’s far-reaching maritime influence.
The wealth generated by the Cholas’ maritime trade had a transformative impact on the empire’s cultural and artistic landscape. The Chola kings, renowned for their patronage of the arts, channeled the riches of commerce into the construction of magnificent temples, palaces, and public works.
The Chola Empire’s maritime dominance may have waned in the 13th century, but its impact on the Indian Ocean world was indelible. The empire’s naval and commercial achievements laid the foundation for the rise of future South Indian kingdoms, such as the Pandyas and the Vijayanagara Empire, who would carry forward the Cholas’ legacy of maritime trade.
The Cholas’ story is a testament to the transformative power of the seas, and a reminder of the enduring legacy of those who dare to navigate its boundless horizons.